The Breakdown and Restoration of Order in Macbeth Essay -- Macbeth ess

The Breakdown and Restoration of Order in Macbeth   Ã‚  Ã‚   When Macbeth kills King Duncan in William Shakespeare's tragedy Macbeth, there is a breakdown of order throughout Scotland. This breakdown is evident through three main factors; within the person, mainly through Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, through the kingdom and through nature. From a completely ordered nation into the depths of chaos - Scotland collapsed from the lack of strong leadership. In the end, when resolution is reached, this chaos is reversed and Scotland is restored to a peaceful nation as it was before Macbeth's reign.    Traditional Elizabethan ideologies were based on the great "Chain of Being". The people believed in an absolutely ordered universe were ranked in order of their superiority. This order corresponded with all religious beliefs and the political system. General beings were ranked in the order of: God, angels, king, man, animals, plants, inorganic material and finally chaos. When Macbeth murders Duncan, he violates this order. The king was seen to be God's representative on earth and if any rebel was to attack the king, he was seen as rebelling against or attacking God. There was a belief that God passed special powers on to all kings, as seen in Act four Scene three "he cures... the healing benediction... he hath a heavenly gift of prophecy" (lines 168-173). Macbeth does not have this divinity, as he is not the rightful king. This is one of the reasons that Scotland turns to chaos.    The evidence that the audience receives about a breakdown within a person is within Macbeth himself. After murdering Duncan, he begins to go crazy - his mind and his thoughts begin to rule him. He becomes very domineering. Macbeth... ...r breaks down the murderer, breaks down the kingdom and breaks down nature, to have Scotland in complete fear and terror. But, good wins over evil and in the end, peace is restored. The coronation of a divine king brings peace and restoration to previous chaos.    Works Cited and Consulted:    Bradley, A.C. Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto: Penguin Books Canada Ltd., 1991.    Campbell, Lily B. Shakespeare's Tragic Heroes, Slaves of Passion. Gloucester: Peter Smith Publisher Inc., 1973.  Ã‚      Edwards, Terence. Twentieth Century Interpretations of Macbeth. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1977.    Shakespeare, William.   Tragedy of Macbeth . Ed. Barbara Mowat and Paul Warstine. New York: Washington Press, 1992.  Ã‚  Ã‚      Scott, Mark W. (Editor).   Shakespeare for Students.   Gale Research Inc. Detroit, Michigan. 1992      

Mathematics and Art Essay -- Logic, Creativity, Philosophy

Mathematics and art are two areas of knowledge that demonstrate different degrees of interaction between critical and creative thinking. Whether considering mathematics or art, creative thinking evaluates a new or original idea containing some degree of value. Critical thinking examines assumptions and challenges a current belief or theory that has previously assumed to be true. Although general assumptions and creativity may be considered separately when considering extreme examples of concrete ideas and abstract ideas, the interplay of critical and creative thinking is one method in which new and validated knowledge is attained. Mathematics is an area of knowledge that may seemingly appear to be concrete, utilizing reason as its source of knowledge. On one hand, mathematics represents learned concepts using a repetitive procedure and logic that will rarely deviate. Beginning concepts of mathematics taught in schools are concrete with fixed steps and formulas for solving problems. For example, the properties of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division yield fixed answers. Students only have to use the steps previously taught and accept them to be true to attain the correct response. Therefore, concrete concepts can only be accepted as true by using learned skills to process and generate information and belief. However, without some degree of understanding or context, the use of the skills as a repetitive â€Å"exercise† is not critical thinking because it has no meaning. It is accepted that the area of a right triangle is one half the base times the height. Reasoning can be used through the drawing of a grid and counting the squares to verify this formula. In this way, mathematics uses critical thinking to guid... ...ture, for example, buildings, bridges, and structures are taller, more energy efficient, and able to utilize previously impossible designs because the interplay of critical thinking and creative thinking has yielded new techniques. These three fields each utilize mathematics and art to generate the latest knowledge. Knowledge can be generated through the interaction of critical and creative thinking. Critical and creative thinking are both needed in different ways to create new ideas that are verifiable and credible. Ideas and interpretations that have been generated through advancements in math and the arts demonstrate that both critical thinking and creative thinking are needed to generate new knowledge. As a result, the questioning of established beliefs along with the creation of new ideas will yield beneficial knowledge to the world and its learners.

The Hero and Anti-Hero in Joseph Conrad?s Heart of Darkness Essay

The Hero and Anti-Hero in Joseph Conrad?s Heart of Darkness In studying Joseph Conrad's, The Heart of Darkness, many critics dwell on the issue of heroism. Who is the hero, Marlow or Kurtz? It is clear that both Marlow and Kurtz are the protagonists of the story; however, protagonist and hero are not always synonymous. Marlow is the hero in the traditional sense of the word, while Kurtz is the more modern hero, often referred to as the anti-hero. Marlow starts out as just as everyman, trying to put some bread on the table. His original plans were setting out to make money, but his journey turns into so much more. His expedition turns into a quest to find and save Kurtz, and to understand the people so many were prejudice against. Despite the opinion of certain critics, Conrad did not create Marlow to be a prejudice character. One of his first Marlow?s first Reactions to the villagers is the exact opposite, ?They were not enemies they were not criminals(Conrad, 189) While his initial response may not seem altogether accepting, it is far beyond the understanding of his peers. As the story continues Marlow is slightly sarcastic in his understanding of the villagers, ?Fine fellows-Cannibals-in their place. They were men one could work with, and I am grateful to them. And, after all, they did not eat each other before my face? (189)? Marlow shows his ability to be sarcastic in the face of popular criticism, even making the mold step to refer to these African?s as ?Fine Fellows?(189), ?They howled and leaped, and spun, and made horrid faces; but what thrilled you was just the thought of they humanity-like yours-the thought of your remote kinship with this wild(189) Although the natives... ...s to look at Kurtz as a hero for all that he had accomplished, no matter how evil. Marlow?s obstacles as the hero are not the overcoming of a dragon or evil villain. It is the eternal battle of the story of a Hero versus Antihero. Marlow?s blindness to Kurtz?s impurities are both his strength and weakness. His ignorance to the greatness of his own qualities can best be stated one way: ?The Horror.? Works Cited page Conrad, Joseph ?The Heart Of Darkness? Schwarz, Danie Reference Guide to English Literature, 2nd ed., edited by D. L. Kirkpatrick, St. James Press, 1991 Dean, Leonard Fellows Heart of darkness. Backgrounds and criticisms Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1962,c1960 ?The Gallery of Antiheroes and Villains? Flowerstorm 2004 www.flowerstorm.net/disa/Gallery/anti-explain.html ?The Existential page? Connect 2004 www.connect.net

National Airspace System

MGMT 203 Management for Aeronautical Science Manager’s Perspective Paper – The National Airspace System (NAS) March 16, 2013 Prepared for Dr. Daniel Nation Lecturer Prepared by Ong Wei Jian Lionel Introduction In this report, we will be looking at the National Airspace System (NAS). We will be taking an in depth look at the overview and the infrastructure of the NAS, discuss about the FAA Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen), and also examine the future needs of the National Airspace System.Overview of the NAS The National Airspace System is defined as a complex combination of systems, procedures, facilities, aircraft, and personnel which work together as one system to ensure safe and efficient air travel in the United States. The NAS consists of several components, and these include: †¢ NAS Operational Facilities (unstaffed) †¢ Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC) †¢ Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCT) †¢ Ground Radios and Radar Sy stems †¢ Airports †¢ Aircrafts (commercial, private, and military) Airline Personnel (operating, maintaining, and modernizing the system) †¢ Passengers (commercial and military) Infrastructure of the NAS The NAS helps to maintain a safe and efficient flight over the US airspace by allowing all control towers, control centers, radios, radars, and many airports to be interconnected to one another to form a NAS operational communications network. This NAS communications network helps pilots to communicate with air traffic controllers and airline operation centers to ensure a safe flight as they travel over the airspace.There are a three systems that make up the NAS, and these include the Digital Airport Surveillance Radar (DASR) System, the Voice Communication Switching System (VCSS), and the Department of Defense (DoD) Advanced Automation System, or DAAS for short. The DASR System is a traffic air control radar system that helps to detect aircraft position and weather c onditions in the vicinity of civilian and military airfields. It consists of two main electronic subsystems: the primary surveillance radar and the secondary surveillance radar, which make use of electromagnetic waves reflected off aircraft to monitor their positions.The VCSS is the communications system used to manage the voice communications of any Air Traffic Control (ATC) facility. The VCSS must be able to support all analog and digital communications between the DoD, the ATC facilities, and the pilots. The DAAS is a system that is used to retrieve and process radar data, flight plans, and weather / airport environmental data to support DoD ATC services. The system transmits part or all of this processed data to a display or workstation (within geographical proximity) for air traffic controllers to access in order for them to control and monitor the activities in the airspace.FAA NextGen Air Transportation System The NextGen program is an initiative developed by the Federal Avia tion Administration (FAA) to help improve the efficiency, convenience and dependability of the NAS. The NextGen modernization of the U. S. air traffic system seeks to increase the efficiency of the NAS through technological advancements; and as well as improved approaches and procedures. The NextGen program plans to make use of satellite navigation, which will allow pilots to know the precise locations of other airplanes around them and enhance the overall safety of air travel.Airports are now already benefitting from the NextGen program. These new capabilities include the national rollout of a network of Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) ground transceivers. These transceivers will receive GPS position reports from aircraft equipped with ADS-B Out (an upgrade required by 2020 for aircraft flying in most controlled airspace); and by 2013, these transceivers will be installed to provide nationwide coverage. Air traffic data such as Traffic Information Service-Broadca st (TIS-B) and Flight Information Service-Broadcast (FIS-B) will be transmitted by the ADS-B transceivers.The FAA also tested a newly automated Collaborative Departure Queue Management (CDQM) system that aims to help airports improve departure management. The FAA is also putting in place tools that will enable airport operators, airlines, and other NAS users better access to shared surface surveillance data, which is vital for safe and efficient airport operations. The Future Needs of the NAS The current features of the NAS unfortunately, are not sufficient to guarantee efficient or uninterrupted operation in the future.The greater interconnectivity of systems brought about by the NextGen program means that the cyber risks to the NAS are also increased. The future cyber security needs of the NAS require a change in both the NAS infrastructure and safety culture in order to be effective against increased the potential cyber risks that will follow. Improved cyber security requires cha nges to the present NAS safety provisions. More safety reviews for continual monitoring is needed. Actions and responsibilities of each and every NAS staff now have to be carefully scrutinized and taken into consideration.Responsibilities of system administrators and network operators have to be expanded, from maintaining the performance of the system to detecting intrusive actions. Improved cyber security also requires changes to the current NAS infrastructure. Data provided by external partners and actions requested by external partners have to be made sure that they are not malicious in intent. The existing cyber security architecture also has to be modified and upgraded accordingly to counteract the changing cyber threats, all in a short timeframe; whilst not compromising on the operations of the NAS during these infrastructure changes and modifications.References †¢ NextGen for Airports. Retrieved March 15, 2013 from the Federal Aviation Administration website: http://www. faa. gov/nextgen/qanda/airports/ †¢ What is NextGen? Retrieved March 15, 2013 from the Federal Aviation Administration website: http://www. faa. gov/nextgen/slides/? slide=1 †¢ Houston, Sarina (n. d. ). The National Airspace System Explained. Retrieved March 15, 2013 from website: http://aviation. about. com/od/Air-Traffic-Control/a/The-National-Airspace-System-Explained. htm Wadas, Burt (n. d. ). National Airspace System (NAS) Overview. Retrieved March 16, 2013 from Armed Forces Communication and Electronics Association (AFCEA) website: http://www. afceaboston. com/documents/events/cnsatm2011/Briefs/01-Monday/07-Wadas-HBAG%20NationalAirspaceSystemOverview. pdf †¢ Williams, James H. (February 2011). National Airspace System Security Cyber Architecture. Retrieved March 16, 2013 from The Mitre Corporation website: http://www. mitre. org/work/tech_papers/2011/10_4169/10_4169. pdf

Definition of Humanities Essay

The dictionary definition of â€Å"humanities† is the languages and literatures of ancient Greece and Rome; the classics. A second definition I retrieved was those branches of knowledge, such as philosophy, literature, and art, that are concerned with human thought and culture; the liberal arts. So basically it’s a combination of art, literature and history. To me humanities are the study of culture and myths. It explains how different cultures communicated through story telling and old hymns. I believe humanities can be used to understand how the past effects the way the world operates in the present day. The culture which we have was shaped by the past. Facts, findings, and literature of even thousands of years ago have changed our world today. It’s important to know your past can allow people to understand our present. The study of the humanities can also be used to realize different views of life and history. Studying facts of the past helps to understand literature of the past. Poetry was another form of expression 4 those who didn’t want 2 sing or tell stories. There were different types of poetry there were some poems that rhymed from line to line and others that were just written out as a thought. According to the â€Å"Humanities in the Modern World, humanities attempts to navigate what we value or we despise, what we to do or what limitations hold us back. To me humanities will elaborate on how different cultures passed down traditions from generation to generation. From those traditions different family values and expectations were set for parents, children and every body to live by. Without these specific traditions people cannot decipher what is wrong and what is right and have no idea how to adjust to change in the present and future. Humanities seem to be interesting and hopefully I’ll get a better view from this class.

Elements of the Marketing Mix Essay

This case will study describe the elements of the marketing mix. These four elements include product, place, price and promotion. This paper will include a description of how an organization’s marketing strategy is affected by the four elements of the marketing mix. Another aspect that this paper will include is a description of how each element is implemented in the company. One more topic that this paper will describe is the organizations name and industry in which it exists. The marketing mix is defined as a mixture of several ideas and plans followed by a marketing representative to promote a particular product or brand. Several concepts and ideas are combined together to formulate final strategies helpful in making a brand popular amongst the masses to form the marketing mix (â€Å"Marketing Mix – Meaning and Its Elements†, n.d.). The elements of the marketing mix are often called the four P’s of marketing (Perreault, Cannon, & McCarthy, 2011). First, Product is defined as goods that are manufactured by organizations for the consumer. Products can be two types, tangible and intangible. A product in a market place is something which a seller sells to the buyers in exchange for money. Price is defined as the money which a buyer pays for a product. The price of a product is indirectly proportional to its availability in the market. If a product is not readily available then the price goes up (â€Å"Marketing Mix – Meaning and Its Elements†, n.d.). Place refers to the location where the products are available and can be sold or purchased. Here one is exposed to a physical building, or store, or one can purchase items on the internet. Finally, the fourth element is promotion. Promotion refers to the various strategies and ideas implemented by the marketers to make the consumer aware of their product (â€Å"Marketing Mix – Meaning and Its Elements†, n.d.). Today’s market is huge and there is an abundant variety of products available. Frito Lay is a multi-national  corporation that is predominantly in the salty snack business. Frito Lay aims its market strategy at both the mass market and target markets alike. This food driven company does have some strengths such as its renowned reliability, high quality control and markets its product as convenient fun foods. The products that Frito Lay generates have consumers in mind that particularly buy snack foods as a leisure item. Their packing and branding is targeting a consumer that wants to snack on the go or during lunch with a sandwich. With this in mind, the organizations marketing strategy uses all four of the marketing mix very well. Frito Lay sells a wide variety of chips form Ruffles to Lays, Cheetos to Doritos and Tostitos to Funyions. These products satisfy many customers’ needs for fun snacking. In the Product element, packaging is also very important when keeping the consumer satisfied. Bright colors are used to catch the eye when they design the bags that carry all of their brands. In the Place element, the product is highly visible in that one can purchase said items and every convenience store in the marketplace. Not only is the product in just about every UDS store but in vending machines and supermarkets. The channel of distribution is very important to deliver these products to the consumer and Frito Lay has an excellent distribution system in place. The third element, Promotion, targets new customers and retaining current customers. Many people have heard the phrase â€Å"no one can eat just one.† This catch phrase was designed for Lays potato chips and hasn’t been used in years, but just about everybody has heard that. That is advertising at its finest. The use of mass selling techniques has been advantageous to Frito Lay. The fourth â€Å"P† is Price and that obviously plays an important part in Frito’s model. Frito Lays strategy is to stay competitive with other salty snack manufacturers and their price points. Their target price is also directed at young adults and children. Each element in the marketing mix is used very well by Frito Lay. The products that this corporation sells to the consumer vary from salty snacks to cookies and even beef jerky. Frito Lay guarantees freshness for its product and delivers a price point that is competitive to just about any consumer. In the channels of distribution process it is important to get a food item to the retailer in a timely manner as the food item can spoil. The freshness guarantee that Frito Lay offers dictates that the salty snack has a shelf life of about a month for most products and the  products need to be removed from the shelves if they do not sell. Because of this model, the delivery system promotes efficiency when sold and distributed to each retailer. Promotions are huge with Frito Lay as they spend millions for point of sale coupons and retail discounts. Not only is there retail push for sales but Frito Lay spends millions on advertising. Advertising can be seen in standard commercials to big budget commercials during super bowl ads. These methods of communication are geared at mass selling and are very effective. Finally, the Price element is important to Frito Lay as the market price for materials goes up so does the price of their products. To circumvent these price hikes, Frito Lay will lower the content volume in the bag and not raise the price. In other instances, they will raise the price by ten cents and remove the price on the bag for a short period of time. The idea is to trick the consumer into believing the price is the same. In all the instances, Frito Lay has a business model that is very effective and has endured for many years. By understanding the similarities and differences between these elements one can understand how a corporation uses the marketing mix to their advantage. The four elements are critical to understand the very nature of the consumer and the retailer. This case study shows that it is important to understand the marketing mix business model as it pertains everyone and final user. References Marketing Mix – Meaning and its Elements. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://managementstudyguide.com/marketing-mix.htm Perreault, W. D., Cannon, J. P., & McCarthy, J. (2011). Basic Marketing. A Marketing Strategy Planning Approach. Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collectioon database.

Sigmund Freud Paper

Many believe Freud to be the father of modern psychiatry and psychology and the only psychiatrist of any worth. He is certainly the most well known figure, perhaps because sex played such a prominent role in his system. There are other psychologists, however, whose theories demand respectful consideration. Erik Erickson, born Eric Homburger, whose theories while not as titillating as Freud’s, are just as sound. This paper will compare the two great men and their systems. In addition, this paper will argue that Freud offers the more useful foundation for understanding the Jenny Masterson’s confused psyche. Sigmund Freud showed signs of independence and brilliance well before entering the University of Vienna in 1873. He had a prodigious memory and loved reading to the point of running himself into debt at various bookstores. Among his favorite authors were Goethe, Shakespeare, Kant, Hegel and Nietzsche. To avoid disruption of his studies, he often ate in his room. After medical school, Freud began a private practice, specializing in nervous disorders. He was soon faced with patients whose disorders made no neurological sense. For example, a patient might have lost feeling in his foot with no evidence to any sensory nerve damage. Freud wondered if the problem could be psychological rather than physiological. Dr. Freud evolved as he treated patients and analyzed himself. He recorded his assessment and expounded his theories in 24 volumes published between 1888 and 1939. Although his first book, The Interpretation of Dreams, sold only 600 copies in its first eight years of publication, his ideas gradually began to attract faithful followers and students – along with a great number of critics. While exploring the possible psychological roots of nervous disorders, Freud spent several months in Paris, studying with Jean Charcot, a French neurologist from whom he learned hypnosis. On return to Vienna, Freud began to hypnotize patients and encouraging them while under hypnosis to speak openly about themselves and the onset of their symptoms. Often the patients responded freely, and upon reviewing their past, became quite upset and agitated. By this process, some saw their symptoms lessened or banished entirely. It was in this way that Freud discovered what he termed the â€Å"unconscious. Piecing together his patients’ accounts of their lives, he decided that the loss of feeling in one’s hand might be caused by, say, the fear of touching one’s genitals; blindness or deafness might be caused by the fear of hearing or seeing something that might arouse grief or distress. Over time, Freud saw hundreds of patients. He soon recognized that hypnosis was not as helpful as he had first hoped. He thus pioneered a new technique termed â€Å"free association. † Patients were told to relax and say whatever came to mind, no matter how mortifying or irrelevant. Freud believed that free association produced a chain of thought that was linked to the unconscious, and often painful, memories of childhood. Freud called this process psychoanalysis. Underlying Freud’s psychoanalytic perception of personality was his belief that the mind was akin to an iceberg – most of it was hidden from view. The conscious awareness is the part of the iceberg that is above the surface but below the surface is a much larger unconscious region that contains feelings, wishes and memories of which persons are largely unaware. Some thoughts are stored temporarily in a preconscious area, from where they can be retrieved at will. However, Freud was more interested in the mass of thought and feeling that are repressed – forcibly blocked from conscious thought because it would be too painful to acknowledge. Freud believed that these repressed materials unconsciously exert a powerful influence on behavior and choices. Freud believed that dreams and slips of tongue and pen were windows to his patient’s unconscious. Intrusive thoughts or seemingly trivial errors while reading, writing and speaking suggested to Freud that what is said and done reflects the working of the unconscious. Jokes especially were an outlet for expressing repressed sexual and aggressive tendencies. For Freud, nothing was accidental. Freud believed that human personality, expressed emotions, strivings, and beliefs arise from a conflict between the aggressive, pleasure-seeking, biological impulses and the social restraints against their expression. This conflict between expression and repression, in ways that bring the achievement of satisfaction without punishment or guilt, drives the development of personality. Freud divided the elements of that conflict into three interacting systems: the id, ego and superego. Freud did not propose a new, na? ve anatomy, but saw these terms as â€Å"useful aids to understanding† the mind’s dynamics. The id is a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that continually toils to satisfy basic drives to survive, reproduce and aggress. The id operates on the pleasure principle – if unconstrained, it seeks instantaneous gratification. It is exemplified by a new born child who cries out for satisfaction the moment it feels hungry, tired, uncomfortable – oblivious to conditions, wishes, or expectations of his environment. As the child learns to cope with the real world, his ego develops. The ego operates on the reality principle, which seeks to superintend the id’s impulses in realistic ways to accomplish pleasure in practical ways, avoiding pain in the process. The ego contains partly conscious perceptions, thoughts, judgements, and memories. It is the personality executive. The ego arbitrates between impulsive demands of the id, the restraining demands of the superego and the real-life demands of the external world. Around age 4 or 5, a child’s ego recognizes the demands of the newly emerging superego. The superego is the voice of conscience that forces the ego to consider not only the real but also the ideal. Its focus is on how one should behave. The superego develops as the child internalizes the morals and values of parents and culture, thereby providing both a sense of right, wrong and a set of ideals. It strives for perfection and judges our actions, producing positive feelings of pride or negative feelings of guilt. Someone with an exceptionally strong superego may be continually upright and socially correct yet ironically harbor guilt-, another with a weak superego may be wantonly self-indulgent and remorseless. Because the superego’s demands often oppose the id’s, the ego struggles to reconcile the two. The chaste student who is sexually attracted to someone and joins a volunteer organization to work alongside the desired person, satisfies both id and superego. Analysis of his patients’ histories convinced Freud that personality forms during a person’s first few years. Again and again his patients’ symptoms seemed rooted in unresolved conflicts from early childhood. He concluded that children pass through a series of psychosexual stages during which the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct pleasure-sensitive areas of the body he called â€Å"erogenous zones. † During the â€Å"oral stage,† usually the first 18 months, an infant’s sensual pleasure focuses on sucking, biting, and chewing. During the â€Å"anal stage,† from about 18 months to 3 years, the sphincter muscles become sensitive and controllable, and bowel and bladder retention and elimination become a source of gratification. During the phallic stage, from roughly ages 3 to 6 years, the pleasure zones shift to the genitals. Freud believed that during this stage boys seek genital stimulation and develop unconscious sexual desires for their mothers along with jealousy and hatred for their father, whom they consider a rival. Boys feel unrecognized guilt for their rivalry and a fear that their father will punish them, such as by castration. This collection of feelings he named the â€Å"Oedipus Complex’ after the Greek legend of Oedipus, who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Originally Freud hypothesized that females experienced a parallel â€Å"Electra complex. † However, in time Freud changed his mind, saying, (1931, p. 229): â€Å"It is only in the male child that we find the fateful combination of love for the one parent and simultaneous hatred for the other as a rival. † Children eventually cope with these threatening feelings by repressing them then identifying with and trying to become like the rival parent. Through this identification process children’s superegos gain strength as they incorporate many of their parents’ values. Freud believed that identification with the same-sex parent provides our gender identity – the sense of being male or female. With their sexual feelings repressed and redirected, children enter a latency stage. Freud maintained that during this latency period, extending from around age 6 to puberty, sexuality is dormant and children play mostly with peers of the same sex. At puberty, latency gives way to the final stage — the genital stage — as youths begin to experience sexual feelings towards others. In Freud’s view, maladaptive behavior in the adult results from conflicts unresolved during earlier psychosexual stages. At any point in the oral, anal, or phallic stages, strong conflict can lock, or fixate, the person’s pleasure-seeking energies in that stage. Thus people who were either orally overindulged or deprived, perhaps by abrupt, early weaning, might fixate at the oral stage. Orally fixated adults are said to exhibit either passive dependence (like that of a nursing infant) or an exaggerated denial of this dependence, perhaps by acting tough and macho. They might continue to smoke or eat excessively to satisfy their needs for oral gratification. Those who never quite resolve their anal conflict, a desire to eliminate at will that combats the demands of toilet training, may be both messy and disorganized (†anal expulsive†) or highly controlled and compulsively neat (†anal-retentive†). To live in social groups, impulses cannot be freely acted on They must be controlled in logical, socially acceptable ways. When the ego fears losing control of the inner struggle between the demands of the id and the superego, the result is anxiety. Anxiety, said Freud, is the price paid for civilization. Unlike specific fears, the dark cloud of anxiety is unfocused. Anxiety is therefore, difficult to cope with, as when we feel unsettled but have no basis for feeling that way. Freud proposed that the ego protects itself against anxiety with ego defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms reduce or redirect anxiety in various ways, but always by distorting reality. Although Freud was known to change his mind, he was deeply committed to his ideas and principles, even in the face of harsh criticism. Although controversial, his ideas attracted followers who formed a dedicated inner circle. From time to time, sparks would fly and a member would leave or be outcast. Even the ideas of the outcasts, however, reflected Freud’s influence. Erik Erikson was one of these outcasts. He agreed with Freud that development proceeds through a series of critical stages. But he believed the stages were psychosocial, not psychosexual. Erikson also argued that life’s developmental stages encompass the whole life span According to Erikson, a crisis is equivalent to a turning point in life, where there is the opportunity to progress or regress. At these turning points, a person can either resolve conflicts or fail to adequately resolve the developmental task. Delving further into these differences, Erikson contended that each stage of life has its own psychosocial task. Young children wrestle with issues of trust, then autonomy, then initiative. School-age children develop competence, the sense that they are able and productive human beings. In adolescence, the task is to synthesize past, present, and future possibilities into a clearer sense of self. Adolescents wonder: â€Å"Who am I as an individual? What do I want to do with my life? What values should I live by? What do I believe in? † Erikson calls this quest to more deeply define a sense of self the adolescent’s â€Å"search for identity. † To refine their sense of identity, adolescents usually try out different â€Å"selves† in different situations – perhaps acting out one self at home, another with friends and still another at school and work. If two of these situations overlap – like when a teenager brings a friend home from school – the discomfort can be considerable. The teen may ask, â€Å"Which self is the real me? Which self should I be? † Often, this role confusion gets resolved by the gradual reshaping of a self-definition that unifies the various selves into a consistent and comfortable sense of who one is – an identity. But not always, Erikson believes that some adolescents forge their identity early, simply by taking on their parents’ values and expectations. Others may adopt a negative identity that defines itself in opposition to parents and society but in conformity with a particular peer group, complete perhaps with the shaved head or multi-colored coif. Still others never quite seem to find themselves or to develop strong commitments. For most, the struggle for identity continues past the teen years and reappears at turning points during adult life. During the first social stage, trust versus mistrust, an infant’s basic task is to develop a sense of trust in self, others, and the world. The infant needs to count on others and develop a sense of acceptance and security. This sense of trust is learned by being caressed and cared for. From Erikson’s viewpoint, if the significant others in an infant’s life provide the necessary love, the infant develops a sense of trust. When love is absent, the result is a general sense of mistrust in others. Clearly, infants who feel accepted are in a more favorable position to successfully meet future developmental crises than are those who do not receive adequate nurturing. However, Erikson postulates that since development is a ongoing lifelong process, personality is not fixed at any given time. Events, circumstances, and social relationships are dynamic and changing. Thus, even a child who emerged from the first stage of life with a strong sense of trust may become mistrustful and cy! nical if betrayed in later social relationships. Hence, personality is not viewed as fixed by the fifth year of life, as Freud believed, but remains fluid throughout the life span. Between the ages of one and three (Freud’s anal stage), children are developing a growing sense of control over their lives. They can now walk, run, climb, and get into all sorts of mischief. A sense of autonomy develops as they learn new skills and achieve a feeling of control over their environment. Thus Erikson’s titles this stage Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt. During this period, some parents, out of concern or impatience with their children’s progress may intervene and do things that the children should be doing by themselves. Other parents may demand a level of competence of which their children are not yet physically and/or emotionally capable. In either case, these children begin to doubt their own abilities and feel ashamed when they fail to live up to parental expectations. Children who fail to master the tasks of establishing some control over themselves and coping with the world around them develop a sense of shame and feelings of doubt about their capabilities During the next stage, Initiative versus Guilt, which takes place during the preschool years (ages 4 to 6 – Freud’s phallic stage), children seek to find out how much they can do. According to Erikson, the basic task of preschool years is to establish a sense of competence and initiative. Preschool children begin to initiate many of their own activities as they become physically and psychologically ready to engage in pursuits of their own choosing. If they are allowed realistic freedom to choose their own activities and make some of their own decisions, they tend to develop a positive orientation characterized by confidence to initiate actions and follow through on them. On the other hand, if they are unduly restricted, or if their choices are ridiculed, they tend to experience a sense of guilt and ultimately withdraw from taking an active and initiating stance. By the age of six, the child should enter elementary school. It is during this age that the stage of Industry versus Inferiority occurs. During the ensuing five years, the most important events in the child’s life revolve around setting and accomplishing goals related to school situations. When children are successful in mastering the many behaviors expected of them during these years, they develop feelings of competency and a sense of industry. They may express such feelings as: â€Å"I can do anything if I just work hard enough. Children who encounter failure during the early grades may experience severe handicaps later on. A child with learning problems may begin to feel like a worthless person. Such feelings may drastically affect his or her relationships with peers, which are also vital at this time. During the adolescent years, teens experience Identity versus Role Confusion. Typically, adolescents feel they are on center stage and everyone is looking at them. They are often highly critical of themselves and feel that others are equally critical. Their thoughts often turn inward. They look at themselves and question whether or not they measure up to their peers. They also begin thinking about lifelong goals and careers, wondering whether they will make it in the world of the adult. Their ruthless self-appraisal is often beneficial. It results in the development of values, social attitudes, and standards. This inward focus appears to be necessary for the development of a firm sense of self and of broader roles in the social order. During the stage of Intimacy versus Isolation, adolescence is now behind the individual and the early adult years loom ahead. Energies are focused on building careers, establishing lasting social ties, and achieving then maintaining intimate relationships. Marriage or cohabitation creates new demands on the individual – sharing, compromising, and relinquishing social mobility to some degree. Also, many young adults begin having children and raising families. Those who were unsuccessful in resolving their identity crises may find themselves isolated from mainstream society and unable to maintain healthy intimate relationships. The years between the ages of 35 and 60 are a time for learning how to live creatively with others; this period can be the most productive stage of an individual’s life. According to Erikson, the stimulus for continued growth in middle age is the crisis of Generatively versus Stagnation or Self-Absorption. By generatively, Erikson meant not just fostering children, but being productive in a broad sense – for example through creative pursuits in careers, in leisure-time activities, in volunteer work or caring for others. Two important qualities of the productive adult are the ability to love well and the ability to work well. Adults who fail to achieve a sense of productivity begin to stagnate, which s a form of psychological death. The years of maturity are typified by the stage of Integrity of the Self versus Despair. This is the most illuminating stage of a person’s life. If all the crises of earlier stages are resolved, looking back with satisfaction of a life well led is a healthy manifestation of self. Maintaining a sense of worth and personal integrity during the final years is natural. Those who could not resolve earlier crises will look upon the prospects of old age and death with a deep sense of dread and despair. Another primary concept to Erikson’s system is ego identity development and the ego strengths that delineate each of the eight stages. His system stresses the ego’s complete and stabilizing influences in a person’s life history. He depicts the ego from a psychosocial viewpoint as the hub of individual identity. As the ego develops through life crises, it gains the capacity to master in increasingly sophisticated ways the puzzles posed by inner and outer reality. Erikson proposed that ego strength is achieved in a sequence of psychosexual stages. Beginning in infancy, the child’s ego must first learn to trust itself and others to become autonomous and self-sufficient. With trust and autonomy come the virtues of hope and will, forms of ego strength that foster sufficient security for the child to risk the potential disappointment that hope entails, and sufficient independence of spirit for children to dare to initiate willingly their personal adaptation to their inescapable realities. Once these fundamental ego strengths are acquired, the child is able to acquire a sense of purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care and wisdom – the ego strengths associated with each stage. Erikson’s theory embodies a well-balanced concern for nonmothetic or universal psychological â€Å"laws† with some traditional psychoanalytic concern for the uniqueness of the individual, especially in the areas of clinical application and psychohistory. So where does all this theorizing leave Jenny Masterson? A Freudian psychoanalyst may have Jenny free associate to certain terms. Perhaps her free association would turn out something like this: Psychoanalyst: Jenny, I want you to relax and lay back. Close your eyes. Now, I want you to give me the first word that pops into your head when I say a certain word. For instance, if I said â€Å"Dog,† you might say, â€Å"Cat. † Jenny: No, if you said, â€Å"dog,† I would say â€Å"dependent. † Psycho: Interesting, why do you think you would say â€Å"dependent? † Jenny: â€Å"Well, they are aren’t they? I have to feed them, I have to bathe them, I have to wash them, I have to walk them – just like a small child. Except they won’t disobey you, and I expect they’d be a little more respectful of all that I would do for them. Psycho: Okay, the next word is religion. Jenny: Futile. Non-lasting. Psycho: Love Jenny: Useless. Really, love means nothing, just like marriage is meaningless. Psycho: I see. Next word, sex. Jenny: Ugh. So vulgar, dirty, disgusting. So beastly. Psycho: Okay. How about children? Jenny: Ungrateful. Possessions. Really, children just do not realize all that we do for them. We sacrifice, we slave so that their existence may be better and what do they do for us? Nothing. Just heartbreak, never ending hearbreak. Psycho: Okay, just one last word, woman. Jenny: Prostitute. Chip. Unclean. Most women are just so ugly, inside and out. I simply cannot stand their smiles – so inviting, those little trollops. Jenny had some major hang-ups in the area of sexuality. Perhaps all her â€Å"problems† stem from this one subject. Sex. Her hostility towards other women, her hinted-at incestuous relationship with Ross, her extreme jealousy of Ross’ girlfriends, her possessiveness, her lack of close friends – all of these can be traced back to her most important subject. Jenny might have been characterized as an anal character. It can be speculated that during her toilet training stage, she refused to give, was prudish and was retentive. It can be speculated that perhaps through unwise parental insistence, she may have come to value yet fear this psychical function and all the features associated with it. According to Freud, this type of person becomes orderly to the point of obsession, egocentric, picayunish, preoccupied with money and material things and obstinate. Jenny is all of these things. His theory also holds that sadomasochism is also a trait of the anal character. Jenny exhibits this. She inflicts and receives suffering all of her life. She is constantly asking for suffering from Glenn and Isabel when she continually insults them, yet they never give in and make her suffer. She creates situations where only suffering can result for her and others, like when Ross and her moved into the same flat. That was doomed to fail. She constan! tly obsessed over where he was, whom he was with, why he wasn’t paying rent – she drove herself crazy, and in the process alienated her son. Like any masochist, she seems in a strangely perverted way to relish her martyrdom and enjoy her distress. Freudian theory holds that the instincts seek pleasure and therefore that Jenny’s persistence in her treacherous behavior must give her some gratification. While her behavior goes against the very grain of survival, and therefore must be neurotic, it serves to gratify her masochistic needs. Continuing with this theme, Jenny believed sex to be dirty, and beastly. It is not known much about her marriage, but one can hardly picture Jenny as a wanton woman, or even as a woman with normal sexual drives. Her marriage may have even been a product of rebellion, again an anal trait, against her family. The principle explanation for Jenny in a Freudian analysis would turn to Jenny’s confused sexual identity. It might be said that she never worked through her oedipal complex successfully. She did identify with her mother, according to her sister however. By identifying with her mom, she may have taken on masculine role. After all, by 18 she was the main breadwinner in the house. Perhaps she wished to possess her mother, since she had taken on the male role. When she married, this psychosexual confusion was not resolved. In fact, it may have been worsened by her husband’s death. It is said that Jenny did not grieve for her husband. Perhaps she merely transferred her womanly affection onto Ross, expecting a relationship from him that was like that of a lover and not a son. Her jealousy over his girlfriends and her kisses under the moonlight certainly point towards unnatural feelings towards him. Perhaps, with Ross’ birth, she was able to find a replacement for her lack of penis. Ross may have been a projection of her true masculine nature. She was able to live her life in the masculine image by being one with Ross. When he died, she kept his robe and pipe, thus cherishing the remnants of her/his masculine identity. Her love of Ross gives an impression of an incestuous relationship. She has fits of jealousy over his lovers, calls him, â€Å"sex mad† and talks of him like a lover (†kissed under the stars†). She is very delusional when she believes that to Ross, she is responsible for his existence but that he owes her nothing. Her actions speak contrary to this. She is the perfect martyr, constantly making exaggerated sacrifices for Ross. In reality, she expected him to repay her with undying devotion. She wanted to possess him.